Oct 14, 2016. Methods: To evaluate the effects of topical application of WSEM (8%) on human skin, an open-label 8-week study was performed involving 20 healthy females between the age of. The PMN cells were incubated at 37°C in 5% CO2 for 90 minutes, either untreated or treated with serial dilutions of WSEM. Excel 2,4; Blue Label Soft Pdf To Excel 2.4.pdf; Blue Label Soft Pdf To Excel Key. Blue Label Soft Pdf To Excel 3 Serial Dilutions.

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Video abstract presented by Gitte S Jensen. Views: 518 Gitte S Jensen, 1 Bijal Shah, 2 Robert Holtz, 3 Ashok Patel, 4 Donald C Lo 2 1NIS Labs, Klamath Falls, OR, 2Department of Neurobiology, Center for Drug Discovery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, 3BioInnovation Laboratories, Inc., Lakewood, CO, 4Centre Manufacturing LLC, Eden Prairie, MN, USA Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of water-soluble egg membrane (WSEM) on wrinkle reduction in a clinical pilot study and to elucidate specific mechanisms of action using primary human immune and dermal cell-based bioassays. Methods: To evaluate the effects of topical application of WSEM (8%) on human skin, an open-label 8-week study was performed involving 20 healthy females between the age of 45 years and 65 years. High-resolution photography and digital analysis were used to evaluate the wrinkle depth in the facial skin areas beside the eye (crow’s feet). WSEM was tested for total antioxidant capacity and effects on the formation of reactive oxygen species by human polymorphonuclear cells. Human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) were used for quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of the antioxidant response element genes Nqo1, Gclm, Gclc, and Hmox1. Evaluation of effects on human primary dermal fibroblasts in vitro included cellular viability and production of the matrix components collagen and elastin.

Results: Topical use of a WSEM-containing facial cream for 8 weeks resulted in a significant reduction of wrinkle depth ( P. Introduction Skin is a multifunctional organ, serving important defense functions against external insults to the body, as both a physical barrier toward the external milieu and an immune defense against potentially pathogenic microbial forms. The skin is subject to both intrinsic (chronological) and extrinsic (environmental) aging, resulting in a loss of functional capacity. Wrinkle formation is a sign of accelerated aging of skin as an organ and is negatively affected by metabolic dysfunction and loss of glycemic control, as well as increased blood lipids. Age-related wrinkling in the skin is promoted by habitual facial expressions, aging, sun damage, smoking, poor hydration, and various other factors.

A substantial harmful influence on the skin aging process includes exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, particularly in combination with pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic polycarbons. UV radiation speeds up the natural aging process, in part by inducing free radical production in the skin, and it is the primary cause of accelerated wrinkling.

This is in part due to a breakdown of the skin’s connective tissue, including collagen and elastin fibers in the deeper layer of the dermis. Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are produced by the body to maintain structural integrity in tissues. Hyaluronic acid is a type of GAG that serves as a natural moisturizer and lubricant between epidermal cells to inhibit the production of matrix metalloproteinases and also promotes collagen synthesis, tissue repair, and hydration. Topical application of GAGs onto skin can help to provide temporary restoration of enzyme balance to slow or prevent matrix breakdown and thereby delay the onset of wrinkle formation. In addition to the physical barrier function of the skin, the three-dimensional (3D) skin tissue is also an important barrier for invading pathogens. The skin is a highly active immune tissue, where cells in the skin itself as well as in the microcirculation are active parts of that defense.

Although mammalian skin is a dynamic tissue with the blood and lymphatic circulations providing nutrients and removing waste products, avian eggs are a closed system, where many protective functions are provided by the egg membrane (EM). The natural biological role of avian EM is to act as a scaffold for the formation of the eggshell during development, as well as to provide antimicrobial protection for the growing avian embryo., EM is being investigated as a biological matrix for regeneration in wounds,, nerves, and joint cartilage. EM displays properties including moisture retention and biodegradability and has shown promise for microencapsulation for nutrient delivery. Proteoglycans in EM have been successfully used in treatments of nonhealing wounds and burns due to the biocompatibility, biodegradability, and similarity to macromolecules found in the human body., Consumption of EM as a nutritional supplement has been associated with significant improvement of physical functioning and range or motion in a population with chronic joint-related pain. Of specific interest for the research reported in this article, an earlier study showed that the application of an extract of soluble EM peptides diminished UV-B radiation-induced wrinkle formation in a model of hairless mice, linked to a dose-dependent inhibition of collagenase and also linked to an increase in synthesis of collagen and hyaluronic acid. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of soluble EM peptides when applied topically on human skin and to explore specific mechanisms of action pertaining to skin cell matrix deposition and free radical protection at the cellular level.

Materials and methods Water-soluble egg membrane The water-soluble EM (WSEM) product was manufactured by Biova LLC (Johnston, IA, USA) using a patented method combining mechanical and chemical methods of hydrolysis to produce a fine white powder. For the clinical study, a facial cream was used, containing deionized water, 8% WSEM (batch #171014A), olive oil, stearic acid, cetyl palmitate, cetearyl alcohol, cetearyl olivate, and a blend of rosemary oleoresin and vitamin E acetate as natural preservatives. Clinical study design The evaluation of the effects of topical application of WSEM on human skin was performed using an open-label 8-week study design.

The study was conducted at Laboratoire Dermscan, Villeurbanne, France, during the winter months from November 2014 to January 2015. A total of 20 healthy females were enrolled after providing the written informed consent according to the following inclusion criteria: healthy female subjects between the age of 45 years and 65 years with some wrinkles and fine lines in the facial skin beside the eyes (crow’s feet). Ethical approval was deemed not necessary by Dermscan. Figure 2 Example of wrinkle reduction over the 56-day clinical study. Notes: The images to the left are 2D, and the images to the right are 3D.

Wrinkle depth is illustrated as increasing scale of blue colors, whereas increasing yellow color reflects the magnitude of the wrinkle crest. Abbreviations: D, day; 2D, two dimensional; 3D, three dimensional. Reduction of free radical stress The WSEM contained antioxidants, which was documented in the Folin–Ciocalteu assay (). In addition to its direct antioxidant capacity, WSEM treatment of human primary PMN cells under conditions of oxidative stress resulted in reduced formation of ROS, indicating anti-inflammatory properties (). Figure 3 Reduction of free radical stress by WSEM. Notes: (A) Total antioxidant capacity was documented in the Folin–Ciocalteu assay, where a broad dose range of WSEM was tested, and the average ± standard deviation of each duplicate data set is shown.

( B) The formation of ROS by human PMN cells. The anti-inflammatory inhibition of the formation of ROS was highly significant at the 0.2 g/L dose (** P. Figure 4 mRNA levels of the ARE genes Nqo1 ( A), Gclm ( B), Gclc ( C), and Hmox1 ( D) were quantified using qPCR analysis. Notes: For this testing, HaCaT cells were plated at 350,000 cells/well in six-well plate formats. Compounds were added 18–20 hours after plating; cells were harvested for qPCR analysis 6 hours after treatment. Data are expressed as fold change relative to the DMSO-only control condition.

WSEM significantly increased mRNA levels of all the four ARE antioxidant response genes evaluated ( P. Figure 5 The effects of WSEM on human dermal fibroblasts are shown as the average ± standard deviation of triplicate cultures. Notes: WSEM showed a mild but significant increase in the proliferation of dermal fibroblasts ( A). In addition, WSEM-treated dermal fibroblasts showed an increase in the production of elastin ( B) and collagen ( C).

The increases in elastin and collagen levels in the dermal fibroblast cultures were not due to the content of those compounds in WSEM, since the 5 g/L dose of WSEM showed similar levels as the negative control (medium alone) at or below 6 ng/mL (data not shown). Statistical significance ( P. © Copyright 2017 • Dove Press Ltd • Website development by maffey.com • Web Design by The opinions expressed in all articles published here are those of the specific author(s), and do not necessarily reflect the views of Dove Medical Press Ltd or any of its employees. Dove Medical Press is part of Taylor & Francis Group, the Academic Publishing Division of Informa PLC Copyright 2017 Informa PLC. All rights reserved.

This site is owned and operated by Informa PLC ( “Informa”) whose registered office is 5 Howick Place, London SW1P 1WG. Registered in England and Wales. Number 3099067. UK VAT Group: GB 365 4626 36.

The mig gene of Streptococcus dysgalactiae, a major bovine mastitis pathogen, encodes two plasma protein-binding receptors, α 2-macroglobulin (α 2-M) and immunoglobulin G (IgG). In this study, the mig gene from one S. Dysgalactiae isolate was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The IgG receptor region encoded by mig was conserved in 16 S.

Dysgalactiae strains. An isogenic mig mutant was constructed by allele replacement mutagenesis of the wild-type gene in S. The IgG-binding activity was lost in the mig mutant strain, whereas the α 2-M receptor activity was still expressed but was detected only in the culture supernatant.

In flow cytometry phagocytosis and bacterial-colony-counting bactericidal assays, the wild-type strain was found to be significantly more resistant to phagocytosis and killing by bovine neutrophils (PMNs) than the mig mutant strain when bacteria were preincubated with bovine serum. We therefore speculate that the Mig protein of S. Dysgalactiae plays a role in virulence of the bacteria by binding to the plasma protein α 2-M or IgG and thus preventing phagocytosis by bovine PMNs.

The Lancefield serological group C bacterium Streptococcus dysgalactiae is one of the most common pathogens of bovine mastitis and causes large economic losses in the dairy industry. It is capable of survival in the mouth, vagina, and skin of healthy animals as well as bedding and pastures (). Because of its environmental location, normal hygiene methods and antibiotic therapy are less effective in preventing S. Dysgalactiae infections than infections with other contagious pathogens. Therefore, an effective way to prevent S. Dysgalactiae mastitis might be to identify conserved potential virulence factors expressed on the cell surface as targets for vaccines. Dysgalactiae expresses various receptors on its cell surface that bind to host-derived proteins such as immunoglobulin G (IgG), α 2-macroglobulin (α 2-M), albumin, fibronectin, fibrinogen, collagen, vitronectin, and plasminogen (,, ).

These receptors mediate the interaction between the host and the bacterium, and therefore they might be involved in the adhesion or invasion to the host cells or in resistance to the host defense system. Two of these receptors, IgG and α 2-M, have been identified in a surface-expressed protein, designated Mig (). The IgG receptor expressed by Mig belongs to the type III IgG-binding receptor family, and its sequence shares homology with other type III IgG receptors. However, in contrast to the two or three repeated domains in the extensively studied protein G in the human group C and G streptococci (,, ), the IgG-binding region of Mig contains five repeats and it binds goat IgG via both the Fc and Fab domains (). Although the role of the IgG receptor of Mig in S. Dysgalactiae virulence is unclear, the IgG receptor of the group A streptococcus (GAS) strains has been found to be involved in virulence in a mouse skin infection model (). The other receptor present in the Mig protein binds to the universal protease inhibitor α 2-M, but only to the complex form (fast form) of α 2-M, the α 2-M–trypsin complex (α 2-M–T).

This is in contrast to the α 2-M receptor in GAS, which binds only to the native form (slow form) of α 2-M (, ). The DNA sequence encoding the α 2-M receptor portion of the mig gene is different from other streptococcus surface-expressed α 2-M receptors, such as Mag in S.

Dysgalactiae (), Zag in Streptococcus zooepidemicus (), and protein G from human group G streptococci (, ). Recently, a novel α 2-M receptor, carried by the protein G-related α 2-M-binding protein (Grab) from human GAS strains was found to be more virulent than the Grab − mutant in a mouse infection model (). Furthermore, the α 2-M bound to the bacterial surface via Grab was still capable of inhibiting the activity of proteases, thereby protecting important virulence factors from proteolytic degradation (). Another role for the α 2-M receptor was found in S.

Dysgalactiae, where the binding of α 2-M–T to S. Dysgalactiae cells interferes with phagocytosis by bovine neutrophils (PMNs), but the specific α 2-M receptor was not identified in that study (). In this study, the degree of conservation of DNA regions encoding the α 2-M- and IgG-binding regions of Mig was assessed by Southern blot analyses of genomic DNA from several S.

Dysgalactiae isolates. In addition, a mig mutant strain was constructed by allele replacement mutagenesis in S. Dysgalactiae, and its ability to resist phagocytosis and killing by bovine PMNs was investigated in a parallel analysis with the wild-type strain. We report here that the IgG receptor region encoded by mig was conserved in 16 S. Dysgalactiae strains, while the mig α 2-M region was present in 5 strains only. Furthermore, we found that the wild-type strain was more resistant to the phagocytosis and killing by bovine PMNs than the mig mutant strain in the presence of serum. This mechanism of resistance to phagocytosis is probably mediated by the binding of α 2-M–T to the α 2-M receptor and not to binding of IgG to the IgG receptor of Mig.

DNA preparations. Plasmid DNA was prepared with the Qiagen plasmid kit (Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany). Dysgalactiae genomic DNA was prepared by a modification of the method provided by Qiagen (Qiagen genomic DNA handbook).

Briefly, bacteria grown in 50 ml of THY were harvested by centrifugation and then washed once in 0.1 M phosphate-buffered saline buffer (PBS), pH 7.2. The bacterial pellets were suspended in 11 ml of buffer B1 (50 mM Tris HCl, pH 8.0; 50 mM EDTA, pH 8.0; 0.5% Tween-20; 0.5% Triton X-100), and the following enzymes (Sigma) were added to the pellet suspensions: 20 μl of RNase A (100 mg/ml), 50 μl of hyaluronidase (34 mg/ml), 150 μl of lysozyme (100 mg/ml), 150 μl of proteinase K (50 mg/ml), and 30 μl of mutanolysin (10,000 U/ml). The suspension was incubated overnight at 37°C until it became clear. Four milliliters of buffer B2 (3 M guanidine HCl, 20% Tween-20) was added and mixed by vortex prior to another incubation for 30 min at 50°C. The genomic DNA was precipitated with 0.7 volume of isopropanol, spooled with a glass rod, washed three times with 70% ethanol, and dissolved in 2 ml of 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0).

Oligonucleotides (Table; Fig. ) used for cloning and sequencing of the mig gene from the S. Dysgalactiae strain SDG8 were basically selected from the published mig sequence from the S. Dysgalactiae strain SC1 () and synthesized either at the Veterinary Infectious Disease Organization or by Gibco Life Technologies (Burlington, Ontario, Canada). Taq DNA polymerase and deoxynucleoside triphosphates were obtained from Amersham Pharmacia Biotech (Piscataway, N.J.). PCR amplification was performed for 35 cycles of 45 s at 94°C, 45 s at 55°C, and 1 min at 72°C with an initial denaturation step of 3 min at 95°C and a final extension of 5 min at 72°C.

Plasmids and strain constructions. Restriction endonucleases and T4 DNA ligase were obtained from Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, and the molecular weight standard was from MBI Fermentas (Vilnius, Lithuania). Plasmid DNA bands were purified from agarose gels by using a Geneclean spin kit (Bio101, Vista, Calif.).

To isolate the mig gene from S. Dysgalactiae strain SDG8, PCR fragments were amplified from chromosomal DNA and cloned into different vectors.

The inserts present in each construct are shown in Fig.. The vectors used were pAA505 (p5Me and p5Me-Sp), pBluescript II KS (pKSMig-3 and pMC-5e), pPCR-Script (pPMig2-8), and pEU904 (pMig-1). PMig-1 was transformed into S. Dysgalactiae strain SDG8 by electroporation; clones in which a double crossover took place were selected by varying the incubation temperatures and examining the resistance to antibiotics (). Southern blots. Briefly, 5 μg of genomic DNA was cleaved with HindIII, separated in a 1.0% agarose gel, transferred to nylon membranes (Zeta-Probe GT; Bio-Rad) by capillary blotting, and fixed by baking the blot at 80°C for 30 min.

The DNA probe α 2-M-1, specific to the α 2-M-binding region of mig, was a 330-bp PCR fragment amplified from the SDG8 genomic DNA with Mig-3 and Mig-4 primers and digested with XmnI, which cleaves within the α 2-M coding region (Fig. This probe was used to check the allele replacement of the mig gene in the Mig8-Mt strain. The SP resistance (Sp)- and EM resistance (Em)-specific probes were a 1.2-kb ClaI- EcoRI fragment and a 0.9-kb EcoRI- SacI fragment of pEU904, respectively.

Approximately 25 ng of the above gel-purified DNA fragments were randomly labeled with [ 32P]dCTP by using a rediprimeII labeling kit (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). The prehybridizations and hybridizations were done in a buffer containing 0.25 M sodium phosphate (pH 7.2)–7% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at 65°C for 30 min and 16 h, respectively. The membranes were washed twice with 20 mM sodium phosphate (pH 7.2)–5% SDS for 30 min at 65°C, followed by two washes with 20 mM sodium phosphate, pH 7.2, and 1% SDS for 30 min at 65°C prior to exposure to X-films. To screen for the presence of the mig genes in several S.

Dysgalactiae strains, a digoxigenin (DIG) system was used. Briefly, 1.5 μg of genomic DNA was cleaved with HindIII, separated in a 1.0% agarose gel, transferred to nylon membranes (Roche Boehringer Mannheim) by capillary blotting, and fixed on the membrane by exposure to UV light for 3 min. The 482-bp α 2-M-2 probe, specific to and comprising all of the α 2-M-binding region, was labeled with DIG-dUTP in a PCR with the Mig-11 and Mig-12 primers by using the 2.4-kb Mig-7 and Mig-4 PCR product as the template (Fig. Similarly, the 1.1-kb IgG probe, specific to the IgG-binding region, was labeled with Mig-9 and Mig-8 primers in the presence of DIG-dUTP, by using the same 2.4-kb PCR product as the template (Fig. Prehybridization and hybridization were carried out with DIG Easy Hyb (Roche Boehringer Mannheim) at 42°C for 2 and 16 h, respectively. Prior to autoradiography, the membrane was incubated with alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated anti-DIG antibodies and the chemiluminescent substrate as recommended by the manufacturer. For reprobing, the previous probe on the membrane was stripped by washing twice with 0.2 M NaOH and 0.1% SDS at 37°C for 15 min, and washed again with 2× SSC (1× SSC is 0.15 M NaCl plus 0.015 M sodium citrate).

SDS-PAGE and Western blots. Proteins were analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) as described previously (). The purified IgG samples were analyzed on gels with β-mercaptoethanol excluded from the gel-loading buffer. Gels were either stained with Coomassie brilliant blue or transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes (Bio-Rad). After blocking with PBS-T buffer (PBS–0.05% Tween 20), the membranes were either incubated with rabbit anti-Mig polyclonal antibodies at a dilution of 1:1,000 and followed with AP-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (heavy plus light chains; Zymed Laboratories, South San Francisco, Calif.) at a dilution of 1:5,000 in PBS-T or incubated with AP-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG at a dilution of 1:500 directly. When purified IgG samples were examined, an AP-conjugated goat anti-bovine IgG (heavy plus light chains; Kirkegaard & Perry Laboratories, Gaithersburg, Md.) diluted at 1:2,000 was used.

The membranes were developed in AP buffer (100 mM NaCl; 5 mM MgCl 2; 100 mM Tris HCl, pH 9.5) supplemented with nitroblue tetrazolium and 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolylphosphate. The concentration of the protein samples was determined on a microtiter plate with a DC protein assay kit and Microplate Manager software (Bio-Rad) with bovine serum albumin or IgG (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.) as standards. Preparation and purification of proteins.

Subcellular fractionation of S. Dysgalactiae was carried out according to the method of Kling et al.

Protease inhibitor cocktail tablets (Roche Diagnostic GmbH, Mannheim, Germany) were used during the preparation. Prior to analysis, the culture supernatant fractions were concentrated 10-fold by centrifugation through an Ultrafree-15 filter Biomax-5 K protein concentrator (Millipore). For preparation of the purified Mig protein, E.

Coli DH5α carrying p5Me was grown in 50 ml of Luria-Bertani medium to logarithmic phase and induced with 1 mM isopropyl-β- d-thiogalactopyranoside (Sigma) for 5 h at 37°C with shaking. The cell pellet was washed once in PBS, and the cells were disrupted by sonication. Cell debris was removed by centrifugation at 15,000 × g for 20 min, and the supernatant was loaded onto a column packed with 5 ml of bovine IgG agarose (Sigma). After extensive washing and elution of the column according to the supplier's recommendations, the column eluate was washed three times with PBS and concentrated approximately 10-fold using an Ultrafree-15 filter Biomax-30 K protein concentrator (Millipore) prior to SDS-PAGE analysis. Bovine IgG was purified with a HiTrap Protein G column (Pharmacia Biotech) from 1.6 ml of bovine serum samples according to the column supplier's instruction.

The column eluate was washed twice with PBS and concentrated approximately 20-fold by using an Ultrafree-15 filter Biomax-5 K protein concentrator (Millipore). The purified protein was examined by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting. Preparation of bovine PMNs. Whole blood from clinically normal 5- to 7-year-old dairy cows was collected in EDTA tubes. PMNs were prepared according to the method provided by Becton Dickinson Immunocytometry Systems (Mountain View, Calif.).

Erythrocytes were lysed with a lysis solution (168 mM NH 4Cl, 10 mM KHCO 3, 0.1 mM tetrasodium EDTA), and the PMNs were washed twice with 1× Hanks' balanced salt solution before being suspended in 1× minimum essential medium without antibiotics. Prior to the assay, the viability and the number of PMNs were determined in a hemocytometer under a light microscope by the trypan blue dye (Gibco BRL, Life Technologies, Grand Island, N.Y.) exclusion test. Fluorescence labeling and opsonization of bacteria. PKH2 fluorescence dye (Sigma) was used to label S. Dysgalactiae strains for the phagocytosis assays, modified from a previous report ().

Briefly, 6 ml of logarithmic-phase bacterial culture was washed once in PBS and suspended in 0.5 ml of labeling buffer (Sigma) in a polypropylene centrifuge tube. An aliquot of this suspension (0.2 ml) was diluted in 1 ml of labeling buffer and mixed with 1 ml of the same buffer containing 10 μl of the PKH2 dye.

The reaction mixture (total volume, 2.210 ml) was incubated for 10 min at room temperature protected from the light. After two washes with PBS–0.5% bovine serum albumin (BSA) (fraction V; Boehringer Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany), the labeled bacteria were suspended in 0.15 ml of PBS–0.5% BSA. The bacterial opsonization or serum treatment was performed by incubating mixtures of 100 μl of labeled bacteria and either 50 μl of a pool of heat-inactivated bovine sera (obtained from cows that had recovered from S. Dysgalactiae mastitis) or 50 μl of purified IgG from the same bovine serum pool at various concentrations for 15 min at 37°C. The bacteria were then washed twice with 10 ml of PBS and suspended in 0.45 ml of Ca 2+- and Mg 2+-free Dulbecco's PBS containing 5 mM glucose and 0.1% gelatin (PBSg).

The viability of bacteria in each labeling samples was determined by plating 10-fold dilutions on THY. Flow cytometry (FC)-based phagocytosis. Equal volumes (100 μl) of serum-treated or nontreated bacteria were mixed with bovine PMNs in a 96-well U-bottom microtiter plate (Nunclon surface; Nunc, Roskilde, Denmark) and incubated at 37°C for 45 min with gentle shaking in the dark.

The reaction was stopped by the addition of 20 μl of 0.3 M EDTA. After two washes with 150 μl of PBSg containing 10 μg of gentamicin per ml (Gibco BRL), the PMNs were suspended in the same solution and incubated for 30 min at 37°C. Finally, the PMNs were washed twice with 150 μl of PBSg and suspended in 100 μl of ice-cold PBSg containing 2% formalin before the analysis. A FC assay was performed on a FACScan flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada) with a 15-MW argon laser light source. Five thousand PMNs were counted for each sample, and cell populations were selected by gating according to their granularity and fluorescence.

Bactericidal assay. Killing of bacteria by bovine PMNs was measured by a viability assay modified from a previously report (). Exponential-phase bacteria were washed once in PBS, suspended in Hanks' balanced salt solution, and incubated in the presence or absence of bovine serum. Equal volumes (100 μl) of bacteria and bovine PMNs were mixed in an Eppendorf tube, and the mixtures were incubated at 37°C with end-to-end mixing. At the required incubation time points (0, 1, and 4 h), 50 μl of the reaction mixtures was transferred to a 96-well microtiter plate well containing 25 μl of 2% saponin (Sigma) in PBS. After incubation at room temperature for 10 min, the samples were diluted up to 1,000-fold in PBS, and three serial dilutions (50 μl of each sample) were plated on THY plates in duplicate.

Prior to the counting of CFU, the agar plates were incubated for 16 h at 37°C with 5% CO 2. The CFU count at time zero was used to calculate the initial ratio of bacteria to PMNs. The killing of bacteria by PMNs was calculated as the bacterial survival rate, measured as the CFU at 1 and 4 h relative to the CFU at time zero.

Molecular cloning and sequencing of the mig gene. The mig coding sequence was obtained from the plasmid p5Me, from which a mature Mig protein was expressed. The upstream sequence was determined from the plasmids pKSMig-3 and pPMig2-8, both carrying the same PCR product but in different vectors, while the 3′-end sequence was obtained from pMC-5e, carrying a DNA region spanning the mig stop codon (Fig. Assembled, the sequence revealed an open reading frame of 2,007 bp and 669 deduced amino acids with a molecular mass of 72,681 Da and a pI of 4.49.

Except for a 15-bp extra sequence at the cell wall-spanning region, the sequence of the mig coding region of SDG8 was highly homologous to the mig gene of S. Dysgalactiae SC1 (), sharing 99 and 98% identity at the nucleotide and amino acid levels, respectively (data not shown). A BLAST search revealed four proteins sharing overall sequence homology to the SDG8 Mig protein. They were protein G from human group G streptococcus (61% identity []), Mag from S. Dysgalactiae (54% identity []), Zag from S. Zooepidemicus (48% identity []), and Grab from Streptococcus pyogenes (31% identity []). Except for Grab, which has only one α 2-M receptor related to protein G, all the other proteins express multiple receptors binding to α 2-M, IgG, or albumin.

When analyzed by regions, the homology between Mig and the other proteins was higher in the IgG-binding region (sequence identity with Mag, protein G, and Zag, 99, 83, and 71%, respectively). In contrast, the sequence encoding the α 2-M-binding domain of Mig was less conserved, with identities between 25 and 30%. Construction and characterization of the mig-mutant strain. Recent work suggests a role in virulence for the α 2-M-binding region of the GAS and group C streptococcus surface proteins (see Discussion). We attempted the construction of an isogenic mutant lacking only the Mig α 2-M-binding region with no success. However, we were able to obtain a mutant in which an antibiotic-resistant cassette replaced sequences downstream of the α 2-M region. Briefly, the mig-internal 420-bp ClaI fragment present in p5Me was replaced with a blunted EcoRI- ClaI fragment containing an Sp cassette to generate p5Me-Sp (Fig.

The mig-Sp insert was cloned into a temperature-sensitive suicide vector, and this construct was named pMig-1 (Fig. For allele replacement mutagenesis, pMig-1 was transformed into S. Dysgalactiae and selected for single crossover in the presence of EM at 30°C.

The strain carrying the plasmid was incubated at 37°C and plated on SP. Bacteria in which the double crossover between homologous plasmid and chromosomal sequences had occurred were selected from colonies resistant to SP but sensitive to EM.

One such isolate, Mig8-Mt, was selected for further analysis. To identify and characterize the constructed mig mutant strain, PCR amplifications were carried out using the primers Mig-3 and Mig-4, which anneal to the sequences flanking the Sp cassette insertion site (Fig.

PCR products of 1.8 and 2.5 kb were obtained from respective genomic DNAs of strains SDG8 and Mig8-Mt (data not shown). The 0.7-kb difference in size between the two strains results from the insertion of the 1.2-kb Sp cassette, minus the 420 bp of the ClaI fragment within the mig coding region deleted during the mig mutant construction (Fig. In Southern blot analysis, genomic DNAs of the two strains were cleaved with HindIII and probed with a total of four specific probes (see Materials and Methods). As expected, genomic DNA of SDG8 did not hybridize to the Sp probe, whereas strain Mig8-Mt showed a 2.4-kb fragment homologous to the Sp probe (Fig. B), suggesting that the Sp cassette has been inserted into the wild-type strain. Neither genomic DNA showed homology to the Em probe (data not shown), indicating that in the case of the Mig8-Mt strain a double cross between homologous sequences present on the plasmid pMig-1 and on the SDG8 chromosome had occurred. When the α 2-M-1 probe was used, 2.5- and 2.4-kb HindIII fragments were detected in the SDG8 and Mig8-Mt genomic DNAs, respectively (Fig.

The smaller fragment in the mutant results from the introduction of an extra HindIII site close to the 3′ end of the Sp cassette (Fig. The HindIII bands of 2.5 kb in SDG8 and 2.4 kb in Mig8-Mt were also present when the IgG probe was employed (Fig. As expected from the restriction map of the mutant strain, an extra 1.2-kb HindIII band was also detected in Mig8-Mt, since the IgG probe spanned the ClaI site used to construct the mutant (Fig. These results indicate that the Mig8-Mt strain carries a mutation on the mig gene. The restriction map of the mutant strain suggests that this strain could export the α 2-M receptor alone, since the export signal and the α 2-M receptor sequences are still intact, but stop codons were added by the Sp cassette, resulting in a truncated peptide lacking the IgG-binding and carboxy-terminal regions of Mig. However, if exported, this peptide cannot be attached to the cell wall, since the conserved LPTTGE region () is missing from its sequence, and the gene product should be found in the culture supernatant.

Southern blot analysis of S. Dysgalactiae SDG8 and Mig8-Mt digested with HindIII. Blots A and B were probed with 32P-labeled α 2-M-1 and Sp probes, respectively; blot C was probed with the DIG-labeled IgG probe.

Protein expression of the α 2-M and IgG receptors in the Mig8-Mt strain was examined by Western blotting using AP-conjugated goat IgG and/or rabbit polyclonal antibodies against Mig (Fig. Protein preparations from the wild-type strain exhibited one band at about 80 kDa reacting to goat IgG (Fig. The relative mass of this band was larger than the expected 69 kDa of the mature Mig protein, a phenomenon similar to the gel patterns of the protein G in the group C and G streptococci which is probably due to the low content of hydrophobic residues resulting in poor binding to SDS (). No signal was detected from the Mig8-Mt protein preparations with the AP-conjugated IgG (Fig. This suggested that the mig mutant has lost the IgG-binding ability, although half of the first IgG-binding repeat could still be expressed with the upstream regions (Fig.

When detected with the antibodies against Mig, a band at about 28 kDa was found in concentrated culture supernatants of Mig8-Mt but not in the cell wall preparations (Fig. B), indicating that Mig8-Mt still expressed the α 2-M receptor but it was lost into the medium.

Concentrated culture supernatants and whole-cell extracts of the wild-type strain exhibited the ca. 80-kDa bands reacting to the goat IgG (Fig. The presence of the Mig protein in the concentrated culture supernatant of the wild-type strain could be due to either bacterial cell wall or membrane turnover or release of the Mig protein from the cell wall by a cysteine protease, as is the case for the M protein of GAS (). Distribution of the mig gene in S. Dysgalactiae strains. A total of 16 S. Dysgalactiae isolates, including two strains from the American Type Culture Collection, were examined for the presence of sequences homologous to the mig gene by using DNA probes containing the mig-specific α 2-M and IgG receptor coding regions.

Southern blot analysis of HindIII digested-genomic DNA revealed that five strains possessed sequences homologous to the α 2-M-2 probe (Fig. ), but the sizes of those bands varied between 2.1 and 2.7 kb (Fig. The same five strains were also positive in PCR amplifications of the mig α 2-M coding region with the Mig-11 and Mig-12 primers (Fig. ), but they exhibited bands of the same size at 0.5 kb (data not shown).

Further PCR analysis of these strains with primers Mig-9 and Mig-8 (Fig. ), amplifying the IgG receptor-encoding regions, indicated that the 0.6-kb size difference found with the α 2-M-2 probe was located on this region (data not shown). In the mig gene, one IgG-binding repeat is encoded by a ca. 200-bp DNA fragment. Taking into account the size differences of the IgG receptor-coding regions, the five α 2-M positive strains therefore might carry three to six IgG-binding repeats instead of only five repeats, as are present in the mig genes of the SDG8 and SC1 strains.

In contrast to the α 2-M-2 probe, the IgG probe (Fig. ) detected homologous sequences in all the tested strains with a total of seven different hybridization patterns (Fig.

As expected, in the five isolates possessing the specific mig α 2-M sequences, the IgG probe hybridized to HindIII fragments of the same size (numbered bands in Fig. ), suggesting that both regions were part of the same genetic unit. To determine the role of the Mig protein in resistance to phagocytosis, SDG8 and Mig8-Mt were labeled with the fluorescent dye PKH2, and the percentage of intracellular microorganisms was measured by FC after ingestion of the bacteria by bovine PMNs. No deleterious effects on the bacterial cell viability were observed after labeling with PKH2 (data not shown). Optimal conditions for phagocytosis were obtained with a ratio of bacteria to PMNs of about 10:1.

The results from four individual experiments indicated that the wild-type strain SDG8 (66%) and the mutant Mig8-Mt (66%) were phagocytosed at the same rate ( P >0.05) in the absence of bovine serum (Fig. When bovine serum was included in the assay, SDG8 was more resistant to phagocytosis than Mig8-Mt (54 versus 69% ingested bacteria, respectively; P. Phagocytosis analysis of the nonopsonized (A) and bovine serum-opsonized (B) S.

Dysgalactiae wild-type strain SDG8 (black bar) and the mig mutant strain Mig8-Mt (white bar). The bars represent the percentage of PMNs containing phagocytosed bacteria (mean. To investigate if the IgG receptor of the SDG8 Mig protein was involved in the resistance to phagocytosis, affinity-purified IgG was used in the phagocytosis assays. When a ratio between 5 and 13 bacteria per PMN was used, and from four individual experiments, we observed similar bacterial ingestion rates when the wild-type strain SDG8 was preincubated with the purified IgG at 1-, 2-, and 4-mg/ml concentrations (data not shown). This result suggests that the Mig-mediated higher resistance to phagocytosis of SDG8 (Fig. B) described above was probably due to the binding of α 2-M in the serum to the Mig α 2-M receptor but not to the binding of IgG to the Mig IgG receptor.

The role of complement receptors was excluded by analyzing the phagocytosis of strain SDG8 incubated with either a heat-inactivated or an unheated bovine serum pool. Similar bacterial internalization rates were observed in two groups (data not shown). To rule out the influence of other serum proteins, we incubated SDG8 with purified IgG prepared from the same serum pool prior to the phagocytosis assay. Similar ingestion rates of the wild-type strain were observed for the control and with 0. This Christmas Donny Hathaway Midi Files on this page. 2 to 0.8 mg of IgG ( P values between 0.7919 and 0.9319, n = 4), suggesting that IgG does not influence phagocytosis by PMNs of S.

To confirm this observation, we performed several complementary experiments on SDG8. First, we did not observe any differences in phagocytosis of control and SDG8 cells preincubated with a different serum pool obtained from four cows challenged with SDG8 ( P = 0.566, n = 2). Second, another S.

Dysgalactiae strain, ATCC 27957, was analyzed in the same way by using a serum pool containing specific antibodies against this strain. As in the case with SDG8, we did not see a significant enhancement of phagocytosis ( P = 0.5896, n = 2). Agalactiae strain was incubated with bovine serum containing antibodies against S. Agalactiae, and its resistance to phagocytosis was analyzed by the same method. A significantly higher ingestion rate was observed with the opsonized sample than the nonopsonized one ( P.

Bactericidal assay. To investigate the roles of serum proteins in the intracellular bacterial survival rate, bacteria were incubated with bovine PMNs in the absence or presence of bovine serum for different time points. The internalized bacteria were released by lysis of the cells with saponin, and viable counts were determined by plating on THY. The lysis of PMNs by saponin was confirmed by microscopic examination, and no deleterious influence of the detergent on the bacterial viability was observed (data not shown). The optimal ratio of bacteria and PMNs in this assay was between 1:1 and 6:1. From six individual experiments, we found that the serum-free SDG8 and Mig8-Mt strains survived at similar rates after incubation with PMNs for 1 h (27% for both) and 4 h (46% for SDG8 and 40% for Mig8-Mt) ( P >0.05).

When the bacteria were incubated with bovine serum, a significant difference in the survival rate was observed between the two strains after incubation with PMNs for 4 h (93% for SDG8 and 35% for Mig8-Mt; P 0.05). These data suggest that in the presence of serum proteins, the wild-type strain is more resistant to the killing by PMNs after being phagocytosed than the mig mutant strain. DISCUSSION The mig gene of the S. Dysgalactiae strain SC1 contains α 2-M- and IgG-binding regions with five repeat units ().

We sequenced the mig gene from another S. Dysgalactiae strain, SDG8, and its sequence exhibited high homology to the mig gene of SC1. However, among the five mig-positive strains in our collection, the size of the DNA encoding the IgG-binding region varied, with a difference of up to 0.6 kb. Based on the restriction map of the mig gene and the size of the IgG-binding repeat units (ca.

0.2 kb) in SDG8, we speculate that three to six IgG-binding repeats might exist in the Mig proteins of these other strains. The number of IgG-binding repeats correlates with the capacities for binding to IgG, since protein G (two or three IgG-binding repeats) binds to the IgG-Fc part (, ) and the Mig protein (five IgG-binding repeats) simultaneously binds to both IgG Fc and Fab regions. An 11-residue peptide derived from a single protein G repeat was shown to inhibit the binding of protein G to human IgG Fc fragments.

Despite the amino acid differences (4 out of 11), a similar peptide from the first repeat of the Mig protein inhibited the binding of protein G to human IgG Fc (). This suggests that the remaining conserved amino acids or the secondary structure of the peptide might play a role in the binding to the Fc portion of IgG. The distribution of the mig gene in a total of 16 S. Dysgalactiae isolates was investigated in this study. All of them possessed DNA fragments that hybridized to the IgG probe (Fig.

B), suggesting that the IgG-binding sequence of mig is highly conserved in these strains. Only five strains (31%) were found to carry the mig α 2-M-homologous sequences linked to the IgG-binding domains (Fig. This suggests that genes other than mig encode the IgG receptors in the rest of the S. Dysgalactiae strains. The mag gene of S. Dysgalactiae encodes a surface protein capable of binding to IgG, albumin, and α 2-M ().

While the IgG-binding domains of mig and mag are highly related (99% identity [this work]), the α 2-M receptors are not (25% identity). Only three strains (19%) were found to carry sequences homologous to the mag α 2-M-binding region (data not shown) and none of them were the previously identified five mig-positive strains. Among the total 16 strains, the percentage of isolates carrying α 2-M receptors was only 50% (31% mig and 19% mag), which was much lower than the 73% found in a direct binding assay using labeled α 2-M–T (). This suggests that other types of α 2-M receptors with unique sequences might exist in S.

Dysgalactiae, especially in the mig- and mag-negative strains. Besides Mig and Mag in S. Dysgalactiae, α 2-M receptors were also identified in several other proteins in streptococci, such as Zag in S. Zooepidemicus (), protein G in human group G streptococcus strain 148 (, ), and the protein G-related α 2-M receptor Grab in human group A S. As the binding of α 2-M to the bacterial α 2-M receptors is highly dependent upon conformation, the sequences encoding α 2-M-binding receptors are unique among these proteins. Furthermore, the pattern of binding of streptococcus cells to the α 2-M protein of the infected hosts was divergent. The α 2-M receptors from human group A and G streptococci bind only to the native form of α 2-M, whereas the α 2-M receptors from bovine and equine group C streptococci bind only to α 2-M–T (, ).

The effects on phagocytosis of these two kinds of binding are also different. The binding of native α 2-M to S. Pyogenes enhanced phagocytosis by PMNs (). It is possible that in GAS, binding of α 2-M provides protection against virulence factor degradation by interfering with intracellular host cell proteases following phagocytosis of the bacterium. Recent findings support this hypothesis.

The α 2-M receptor expressed by the protein Grab of human group A S. Pyogenes strains has been shown to be involved in virulence in a mouse infection model via binding to α 2-M, thereby inhibiting activities of both bacterial and host proteases and thus protecting important virulence determinants from proteolytic degradation ().

The binding of α 2-M–T to S. Dysgalactiae inhibited phagocytosis (), perhaps by protecting other virulence factors against host protease degradation. In bovine mastitis, the PMN-mediated phagocytosis is the most important host defense system in the mammary gland (). The concentration of immunoglobulins () and α 2-M () also increases dramatically following infections of the gland. This suggests that binding of α 2-M and IgG to the Mig protein of S. Dysgalactiae could mask the surface of the bacterium and interfere with phagocytosis by PMNs.

To test this hypothesis, we constructed an isogenic mig mutant strain and analyzed its resistance to phagocytic ingestion and killing by bovine PMNs. Although the α 2-M receptor portion of Mig was still expressed in the mig mutant strain, it was not cell associated and it could not be detected in the supernatants of the phagocytosis reactions by Western blotting (data not shown). Dysgalactiae SDG8 was more resistant to phagocytosis in the presence (54%) than in the absence (66%) of serum-ingested bacteria, while no differences were observed with Mig8-Mt (69 versus 66%) (Fig.

), suggesting that binding of α 2-M and/or IgG to the Mig protein of the wild-type strain influenced phagocytosis by bovine PMNs. Control experiments performed with purified bovine IgG, serum samples from different cows, and a different S. Dysgalactiae strain indicated that the phagocytosis of S. Dysgalactiae cells by bovine PMNs is probably due to a nonopsonic mechanism. This kind of phagocytosis is usually influenced by some factors that mediate interactions between bacteria and phagocytes, such as carbohydrate-protein, protein-protein, and hydrophobic interactions (). Hydrophobic interactions of S. Dysgalactiae have been shown to play a role in bacterial ingestion by phagocytic cells (), but more experiments are needed to confirm our observations of nonopsonic phagocytosis of S.

Dysgalactiae by bovine PMNs. We speculate that the higher resistance to phagocytosis of the wild-type strain is probably mediated by the binding of α 2-M–T to the α 2-M receptor of Mig and not to binding of IgG to the IgG receptor. Since α 2-M is a large molecule, ca.

720 kDa (), the α 2-M–T bound to bacteria probably protects it from phagocytosis directly or indirectly by masking other receptors that mediate phagocytosis, thereby inhibiting bacterial ingestion. In our phagocytic killing study, a very significant survival rate of the serum-incubated wild-type strain compared to the mig mutant strain correlates with a previous observation that the binding of α 2-M–T to S. Dysgalactiae whole cells inhibited phagocytic killing () and thus played a role in virulence of S. The α 2-M protein bound to the bacterial surface via the Grab protein of S. Pyogenes inhibits the activities of bacterial and host proteases, thereby preventing bacteria or some other virulence factors from proteolytic degradation (). In the case of S.

Dysgalactiae, the mechanism of resistance to phagocytosis mediated by the α 2-M receptor in Mig remains undetermined, since Mig binds only to the trypsin complex form of α 2-M. It is unclear if α 2-M–T bound to the bacterial surface via the α 2-M receptor still traps and inhibits the activities of proteases, since the enzymatic activity of α 2-M–T against low-molecular-mass substrates was unimpaired while its activity against high-molecular-mass substrates was severely affected (). In human group A S. Pyogenes strains, the M protein has been shown to protect the bacteria against phagocytosis by PMNs ().

Recently, an M-like protein was also isolated from a strain of S. Dysgalactiae (). A comparison of the amino acid sequence of this protein to that of Mig indicated a low degree of homology (data not shown). Although Mig and the M proteins do not share extensive amino acid homology, Mig possesses structural features similar to the M family of proteins, namely, an alpha coiled-coil structure, repeated amino acid sequences, a carboxy-terminal region embedded in the cell wall, and the conserved sequence LPTTEG essential for anchoring to the cell membrane. A functional classification of the M proteins is their ability to confer resistance to phagocytosis (). The mechanism by which the M protein protects the bacteria appears to be binding to the serum protein factor H, which regulates the activity of complement deposited on the cell surface ().

Although some of the proteins that bind Mig and M are different, it is tempting to include Mig as a member of the M-protein family, since they exert the same biological function, i.e., protection of the bacterium against the immunological surveillance of the host. We thank Susantha Gomis, Dale Godson, and Michael Fontaine for valuable discussions, Terry Beskorwayne for performing FACS analysis, The Animal Care Unit at the Veterinary Infectious Disease Organization for collecting animal blood samples, and Philip Willson for help with the statistical analyses. This work was supported by The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Canadian Bacterial Diseases Network, Saskatchewan Agriculture Development Fund, and The Dairy Farms of Canada.